ENGLISH: FORM 5 - WORD FORMATION

WORD FORMATION

In linguistics, word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define: a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form.

Word Formation tries to explain the processes through which we can create new word forms. We’ve already seen some of these at work when we looked at morphemes and word classes, but now we’ll investigate them a little more closely, initially using exploratory methods again, rather than just looking at long lists of morphemes and listing their functions.

This is the field or branch of morphology which studies different principles or processes which govern the conservation or formation of words in a particular language. I.e. it refers to the processes by which new words are formed or built in a particular language.

This process involves morphological processes (then formation of words through combinations of morphemes together with other different processes.

The process of word formation may involve the process whereby roots or stems received inflectional or derivational element (affixes) in order to form the new words.

NB: The roots, stems inflectional or derivational elements are all technique termed as morphemes

MORPHOLOGY

This is a component of grammar (sub branch) of linguistics which deals with the study of morphemes and their difference forms (Allomorphs) and how these units combine together in the formation of words. It also studies the structure and arrangement of words in the dictionary i.e. Morphology is the study of word formation and dictionary use.

DEFINITIONS OF KEY WORDS

1. Morpheme

This is the smallest grammatical or lexical unit in the structure of a language which may form a word or part of a word

E.g. nation - national

International

Internationally
Nationalization
Kind - kindness

                   Unkind
           Unkindness
        Take - takes

Taken
Taking

Discuss - discussion

Discussions
A morpheme may represent the lexical meaning or grammatical function.

2. Word

This is the minimal or smallest unit in the structure of a sentence in any language which may constitute on utterance or sentence on its own.

The word is usually formed by either one or several morphemes out it is the smallest unit in the sentence structure.

E.g. Yesterday I met him at Tabata- 6 words

We can words in a sentence and morphemes in a word

3. Stem

Is that part of a word that is in existence before any inflectional affixes have been added.

Or, Is that part of the word that inflectional affixes can be attached to.

For example:

- "cat" can take inflectional morpheme-'S'

- "Worker" can take inflectional morpheme-'S'

- "Winne" can take inflectional morpheme-'S'

- "Short" can take inflectional morpheme-'er'

- "friendship" can take inflectional morpheme-'S'

NB:
- A stem is a root or roots of the word together with any derivation affixes to which inflectional affixes are added.
- A stem consists minimally of a root but may be analyzable word into a root plus derivation morphemes

4. Base

Is any unit whatsoever to which affixes of any kind can be added.
For example; in the word "playful"

'play' is a root and also a base

In the word 'playfulness' the root is still "play" but the base is 'playful'

- "Instruct" is the base for forming instruction, instructor and re-instruct

NB: All roots can be bases but not all bases are roots.

TASK
1. Write ten words which you think are bases but they are not roots
2. Identify the inflectional affixes, derivational affixes, roots, base and stems in the following words faiths, faithfully, unfaithful, faithfulness, bookshops, window-cleaners, hardships

5. Root

This is a basic part of a word which normally carries lexical meaning corresponding to the concept, object or idea and which cannot be split into further parts
Roots in many languages may also be joined to other roots or take affixes or combing forms
E.g. Man manly, house hold, big

6. Affix

This is a morpheme, usually grammatical which is attached to another morpheme (stem) in the formation of a new word which may change the meaning, grammatical category or grammatical form of the stem.

E.g. Beautiful Mismanagement Disconnect

The affix maybe added either before, with or after the stem thus are three types of affixes.

i. Prefix

This is the affix which is added before the stem

E.g. Disconnect

Illogical

Unhappy

Empower

ii. Infix

This is the affix that is added within the stem. Thus type of affix is rare to be found in English words

E.g. meno - meino

iii. Suffix

This is the affix that is added after the stem.

                        E.g. Mismanagement
                                Beautiful
                                Dismissal
Kingdom

7. Allomorph

This refers to any of the difference forms of the same morpheme root they all represent the past participle (grammatical function)

CLASSIFICATION OF MORPHEMES

The morphemes are classified into several categories basing on several factor such as:-

Occurrence, meaning and function

There are two major types of morphemes

(i) Free morpheme

This is the morpheme that can stand or occur alone (on its own) as a separate word in the structure of a sentences in any language.

The free morpheme includes all parts of speech i.e. Nouns, Verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections, articles

The free morpheme is further divided into two categories

(a) Lexical morpheme

This is the type of frees morpheme which occurs on its own and carries a content of the message being conveyed i.e. It is the free morpheme which represents the actual lexical meaning of the concept, idea, object or action.

The lexical morphemes include the major word classes such as Noun, verbs (main verb), adjective and adverb.

E.g. House

Attend

Large

Tomorrow

(b) Functional morpheme / grammatical morpheme

This is the free morpheme which can stand alone as a separate word in a sentence but does not represent the actual lexical meaning of the concept, idea, object or action – it has little meaning when used alone and thus it usually occurs together with the lexical morpheme in order to give the lexical meaning

The functional morphemes includes the minor word classes such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and articles, auxiliary verbs etc

(ii) Bound morpheme

This is the morpheme which can not normally stand alone as a separate word in the sentence structure as it is attached to another morpheme (lexical) free morpheme in the formation of the new word.

The Bound morpheme represents grammatical function such as word category tense aspect, person, number, participle, comparison etc.

Example ment, ism represents a noun, aly represent.

Adverb

Tense – ed, d, voice, number

Person – es

Aspect – ing – progressive aspect

Comparison – er, est

The Bound morpheme is farther divided in to two categories.

(a) Derivation morpheme

This is the bound morpheme which is used to form or make new words with different meanings and grammatical categories or class from the stem i.e. It is the morpheme which when added to the stem it changes the meaning and / or the word class of grammatical category of stem/ base Example unhappy, illogical, impossible, empower

National – noun to adjective

Derivation morpheme may occur either before or after or both before and after the stem in the formation of the new words i.e. they may occur either as prefixes or affixes example management, mismanage, mismanagement.

The derivation morpheme may also change the sub classification of the same word class such as concrete noun into abstract noun e.g. Kingdom, friendship, leadership, membership

Deviation morphemes are also used as indicators of word category example simplicity, modernize dare indicators of verb by indicator of adverbs.

(b) Inflectional morpheme

This is the type of bound morpheme which is not used to produce or form different words with different meaning but rather it is used to change grammatical form of the state i.e. Inflectional morpheme doesn’t change the meaning or word class but it only changes grammatical form of the sentence which represent grammatical function such as to mark the verb for tense aspect, participle voice etc

Example finished, Lorries, oxen

Past tense – finished

Past participle – proven

Number – Lorries, oxen, children

Inflectional morpheme also marks nouns and number.

They mark adverb and adjectives for comparison

E.g. smaller, smallest

The inflectional morpheme occur only after the stem (they are suffix)

FUNCTION OF MORPHEMES

The morphemes are analyzed as having three major functions that are directly linked with their types.

The following are the functions of morphemes:-

1. The morpheme (free morphemes) are used to form the bases or roots of the words i.e. a single free morpheme, lexical or functional forms the base or root of a word.
This function is therefore called Base – form function

E.g. Tree, after, along

2. The morphemes (derivation bound morphemes) are used to change the lexical meaning and / or the grammatical category of the stem.
This function is called derivation function

E.g. Disunity, illegal, beautiful, quickly, modernize

3. The morphemes (inflectional morphemes) are used to change the grammatical form or function of the stem without changing the meaning or word class.

This function is known as inflectional function

E.g. goes, tallest

TASK

Read the following passage and answer the following question

A thick vegetation cover, such as tropical forests , acts as protection against physical weathering and also helps to slow the removal of the weathered layer in deserts and high mountains the absence of the vegetation accelerates the rate of weathering plants and animals, however, play a significant part in rock destruction, notably by chemical decomposition through the action of organic acidic solution the acids develop from water percolation through party decayed vegetation and animal matter.

Question

1. Identify

I. 7 lexical morphemes

II. 5 derivation morphemes

III. 2 inflectional morpheme

PROCESSES OF WORD FORMATION IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

The formation of words in English language is archived in several processes or ways. These processes fall into two major categories

(i) The major processes which includes affixation compounding, Conversion and reduplication.

(ii) The minor processes which includes clipping Blending, Acronym, Borrowing, Back formation, Onomatopoeia, Coining/ coinage

I) The major processes of word formation

(a) AFFIXATION

The process of word formation whereby new words are formed by attaching or adding the affixes (prefix, infix or suffix) to the stem.

E.g. Shortly – suffix

Unusual – prefix

Belonging – suffix

Inhuman – prefix

Dismissal - suffix

(I) Prefixation
This is the process of forming new words by adding affixes before the stem/root. For example dislike , unhappy, amoral, decolonise, redo.

Classification of Prefix

Prefix are classified into several categories basing on the meaning they give when added to the stem

i. Negative prefixes

These give the meaning of “NOT” “the opposite of” or “lack of”

E.g. Informal – irrelevant

Impossible – illegal

Immobile – illogical

Irregular – disobey

Disadvantage - amoral

Apolitical

ii. Restorative prefixes

These give the meaning of “Reverse an action”

E.g Undress – deforest

Uncover – depopulate

Disconnect – devalue

Disorganized

Decolonize

iii. Pejorative prefixes

These give the meaning of “unless. False, fake, unimportant. Wrong, badly or bad”

E.g. Malnutrition – pseudo name

Malpractice – pseudo intellectual

Misconduct – pseudo scientists

Mismanage

Misbehave

iv. Prefixes of degree or size
These express degree or size in terms of quality or quantity.

E.g. Arch (supreme or highest in rank)

Super (above or better)

Sir (over and above) e.g. Sir name

Sub (lower or less than) e.g. Substandard, subconscious

Over (too much) e.g. Over doss, over it, over confident

Under (too little) e.g. under paid, under look, under cook

Hyper (extremely or beyond) e.g. Hyper actives, Hyper sensitive

Ultra (extremely or beyond) e.g. Ultra modern, ultrasound

Mini (small) e.g. Mini bus, mini skirt

v. Prefixes of altitude

These include “Co-“(with or joined)

E.g. Co-operate, co- education, co- exist. “Counter” (in opposition to”) e.g. Counter attack, counter- revolution, and counter act

“Anti” (against) e.g. Antivirus, anticlockwise, anti body

“Pro” (instead of or on the side of) e.g. Pronoun, pro capitalism, Pro multiparty.

vi. Locative prefixes

These indicate location

E.g. Super (over or above) superstructure, super building, super imposed

Inter (between or among) international, inter school

Trans (across) Trans Saharan, trans plant, Trans Atlantic

vii. Prefixes of time and order

These include “fore” (before, front, first) e.g. Foreground, fore legs, fore knowledge, fore head

Pre – (before) e.g. Pre-mature

Pre- independence

Pre- form one

Pre- National

Pre- judge

Pre- war

Post – (after) e.g. Post- graduate

Post – independence
Post-election

Ex – (former) e.g. Ex – president
                                             Ex – wife
                                             Ex – husband
                                             Ex – soldier

Re – (again or back) e.g.Re – write

Re call

Re evaluate

viii. Number prefixes

These show number

Uni-/ Mono – (means one) e.g.Uni- cellular

Mono party

Monolingual

Monocotyledon

Monosyllabic

Bi -/ Bi – (means two, double or twice) e.g. Bilingua

Bicycle
Ditransitive
Dicotyledon
Bi- annual

Tri (three) e.g. Triangle

Tricycle
Trilateral

Multi/ poly (many) e.g. Polyandry

Polygamy
Multi lingua
Multiparty
Multi disciplinary

ix. Conversion prefixes

Prefixes used to change a word from noun/adjective to verb

En – (make or become)

e.g. Enslave

Enlarge

Ensure

Enforce

Enrich

Enlightened

Be – (make or become)

e.g. Befriend

Be calm

Be witch

-A- (be or become)

e.g. a live

A sleep

A rise

x. Other prefixes

- Auto (self) – Auto biography

Autograph

Autocracy

- Neo (new or revived) e.g. Neo- colonialism

Neo-man

-Pan (all or worldwide) e.g. Pan-africanism

-Proto (original) e.g. Proto Bantu

Proto language
Proto type

-Semi (half) e.g. Semi-circle

                                           Semi- hemisphere
                                           Semi- final
                                           Semi-model

TASK

1. Provide the meaning of the following prefixes and provide three examples of words/roots/stem which can be use these prefixes.
i) Sur -
ii) Proto -
iii) Hyper -
iv) Dis -
v) Neo -

2. With examples differentiate between pejorative prefixes and locative prefixes.
3. Use appropriate prefix(es)in each of the following words
       i) Charge
       ii) Type
       iii) possible
       iv) Navigation
       v) Ability

4. i) Give three examples of reversative prefixes
    ii) Write three examples of the prefix poly_
    iii) What is the difference of the prefix "Un" in unhappy, unkind and in uncover, untie

(II) Suffixation

Is the process of adding morphemes after a system/root. So as to form new word. Unlike prefixation, suffixes frequently alter the word class of a root/stem.

Classification of suffix

The suffixes are classified according to the class of the new word formed after the addition of the suffixes.

There are four major types of suffixes

i) - Noun suffixes

ii) - Adjective suffixes

iii) - Adverb suffixes

iv) - Verb suffixes-let (small)

Noun Suffixes

are the suffixes added to the stem or bases of different word classes in the formation of the new word that are noun by category.

This falls into four categories;

(a) Noun to noun suffixes

- star (engaged in or belongs to)

E.g. – Young –star

Gang-star

- eer (engaged in or belongs to)

E.g. Engineer

Profiteer

Racketeer

- let (small)

E.g. Booklet

Leaflet

Piglet

- ette (small)

E.g. Kitchenette

Cigarette

Statuette

- ess (small) e.g. Lioness

Actress

Princess

- hood (in the state or status of) e.g. Brotherhood

Manhood

Neighborhood

Youth hood

Adulthood

- Ship (in the state or status of) E.g. Friendship

Relationship

- Dom (in the condition) E.g. Kingdom

Freedom

Boredom

Wisdom

- cracy (system of government) E.g. Bureaucracy

Democracy

- ery (behavior of or place an ac

E.g. Slavery

Machinery

Peasantry

Carpentry

Concrete – Abstract

(b) Noun to Adjective suffixes are the suffixes added to

- ist (member of) e.g. Socialist

Idealist

Capitalist

Ratio list

- ism (attitude or political movement)

E.g. Idealism

Communism

- ness (quality) or state

E.g. Happiness

Cleverness

- ity (state or quality) e.g. Stupidity

Ability

Salinity

- er (instrumental or a genitive) e.g. Player

Reader

Writer

Farmer

Leader

- or (“ ) e.g. Actor

Investigator

Incubator

Insulator

- al (action of) e.g. Arrival

Dismissal

Withdrawal

Proposal

- age (an activity or)

E.g. Drainage

Marriage

Passage

Leakage

- ment (state or action of)

E.g. Government

Treatment

Achievement

Improvement

- ant (instrumental or adjective) E.g. Assistant

-ee (passive receiver) e.g. Employee

Payee
Trainee
Appointee
Interviewee

- (a) tion (state or action)

E.g. organization

Examination

Discussion

Globalization

Penetration

(ii) Adjective suffixes

They are used to change the bases of different word classes such as noun or verbs in order to form the new words that are Adjective by class.

(a) Verb to Adjective suffixes

- ive (which) e.g. Active

Respective

Comparative

Collective

- able /-ible E.g. Manageable

Sensible

Movable

Honorable

Noun to Adjective suffixes

- al (of or with) e.g. National

Accidental

Criminal

Historical

- (ii) an (member of) e.g. Tanzanian

Canadian

- ful (having or with)

E.g. Beautiful

Wonderful

- less (without)

E.g. Childless

Speechless

Harmless

Hopeless

Useless

- ly (having a quality of)

E.g. Manly

Friendly

Cowardly

- ish (belong to or having the character of)

E.g. Selfish

Turkish

Irish

Swedish

- ous (with or worth) e.g. Dangerous

Famous

- ese (a member or citizen of)

E.g. Chinese

Congolese

Japanese

- y (like, with or cover with)

E.g. Sandy

Muddy

Sugar

Healthy

Creamy

Hairy

- like (having a quality or behavior like)

E.g. Childlike

Fingerlike

(iii) Verb suffixes

These are the suffixes added to the stems or roots of Noun or adjectives to from the new words which are verbs by class.

These are three types of verb suffixes

-ify (cause or make) e.g. Identify

Simplify
Notify
Classify
Purify

-en (cause or make) e.g. Widen lengthen

Sharpen strengthen
Weaken
Sadden
Threaten

-ize/ - ise ( “ ) e.g. Apologize

Colonize
Socialize
Formalize

(iv) Adverb suffixes

These are the suffixes which when added to the roots or stems they produce a new word which is an adverb by class

-ly (in the manner of) e.g. quickly

Slowly
Quietly
Happily
Gradually

-ward (in the manner of or in the direction of)

                                    E.g. Backward
                                            Onwards
                                            Inwards
                                            Downwards
    Upwards

-wise (as far as or in the manner of)

                           E.g.   Education wise
                                          Clockwise
                                                Cultural wise
                                                Political wise
TASK
1. Form verbs from the following words; family, type, popular, clear.
2. Form adjectives from the following words;expression, problem, progress, crime, courage.
3. With examples differentiate prefixes from suffixes
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ENGLISH: FORM 5 - WORD FORMATION

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